Different Types of Binders through the History of Art

by Barnet W. McConnell

Student Projects, Pigments&Binders

Introduction

The pigment and binder unit particularly sparked my interest because paintings in art fascinate me. I am interested in how artists create their incredible work with just paint and brushes. After our unit on pigments I learned that paint is a complicated substance. In order to create it rare and expensive pigments are ground with water and a binder. The binder is added in order for the pigments to adhere to the canvas, gesso board, or other surface the artist decides to paint on. Pigments and surfaces for paintings have evolved just like man has. Art today is not like art during the prehistoric ages. I explored the different binders used in paint during different time periods of art history. I looked at how different binders change the consistency, color, and texture of the paint. By creating different paints used throughout art history I was able to test and experiment with materials similar to what the artist used and compare and contrast the paints and surfaces that were painted on.

Background

All paint is made up of two ingredients, the pigment and the binding material. Pigments can come from vegetables, honey, minerals and, animals. The pigment should be unaffected by light, heat, acids, moisture, and pollution. An ideal pigment has permanent color, uniform texture, and stability. The binder should adhere well to the support (wood, gesso board, canvas). The binder should maintain the adhesion for a long time. Binders such as egg tempera, gum arabic, gouache, and linseed oil are mixed with the pigments in order to make paint.

In my project I showed how art, especially pigment and binders, have changed over time. Early cave painters had limited material to work with. Their palettes consisted of three basic colors: red, black, and yellow. Reds, yellows, and browns came from the limonite and hematite (ochre and sienna). These colors ranged from reddish brown to straw color in the cave paintings. Walls with red violet and mauve were created from natural iron peroxide that transformed into violet oxide. The black used was most likely from manganese ores and charcoal.

The most prominent and famous cave paintings still around today are in the Lascaux area in France. This area has a lot of cave paintings because the ground is so rich in iron oxide. The cavemen formed crayon sticks and liquid paste. They created these objects by removing lumps from the ground and grinding the lumps into a fine powder. Prehistoric tools were used for this grinding process. Cavemen made mortars out of bones of animals. Prehistoric binders were made from both obvious and surprising substances. Some binders were made from, vegetable juices, urine, animal fat, blood, and bone marrow. The pigment, water and binder were ground together until they formed a paste, known today as paint. (Stokstad, 51)

After many centuries art began to be transformed and take new shape. The materials were more advanced and not as primitive but the concept for making paint was still similar. Art throughout the Renaissance differed greatly from the early cave paintings. The Renaissance subject matter was sacred whereas cave paintings documented the caveman’s life. Artists during the Renaissance did not work on the walls of caves; instead they worked on wood panels and prepared gesso board. Their art was more sophisticated and was purchased by wealthy families. Artists began to produce art that was made from very expensive and rare pigments. In order to produce such great works of art, the artists began to experiment with new techniques and pigments. One pigment characteristic of the Renaissance is known as Verona Green (terra verte). Artists used this pigment for under painting flesh tones. The pigment was found in Italy and is very rare today. Many pigments came from minerals, animals, and vegetables. The most common binder used in The Renaissance was egg tempera. Grinding pigment, water, and a small amount of the yolk of an egg together formed paint. Artists would use the yolk of an egg because of its natural protein and high adhesive properties. Also the egg symbolizes new life and Christ’s resurrection, which is important to the sacred meaning of the work in the Renaissance. Giotto is an outstanding example of an early Italian painter who used this medium. His Arena Chapel in Padua, Italy exemplifies the high point of technical achievement in pure egg tempera. (Hartt, 568)

The most important discovery in the art world was the creation of oil paint. The first technique of oil painting was used at the end of the Renaissance and is the most popular painting medium today. The change from egg tempera to oil painting was very subtle. Flemish Painter Jan Van Eyck was one of the first to incorporate small amounts of waxy, oily substances into his tempera paint. The result as seen in his painting The Arnolfini Wedding, is a new glossy and jewel like paint. Oil paints allow for more brushwork, color blending and detailing. (Hartt, 648)

Artists soon began to see all of the positive benefits oil paint had. Artists such as Vincent van Gogh worked with oil paints on canvas. Oil paints dry slower and are more versatile. Oil paints allowed more color blending and brushwork. Van Gogh’s Starry Night is oil paint on canvas. The oil paint used by such artists such as Van Gogh was ground pigment mixed with linseed oil. The pigment and binder are mixed in varying proportions depending on the pigment that is being used. Linseed oil is a drying oil specially prepared for its use in oil paint.

Oil paint and watercolor paint are by far the most popular mediums today. Artists tend to paint in one style depending upon the medium they choose to work with. Both oil paint and gouache paintings are popular among artists today. A gouache painting is a watercolor done in opaque instead of transparent colorings. Gouache has a greater proportion of binder to pigment than is found in transparent watercolors. Thus, gouache produces a continuous paint film of considerable thickness and is not suitable for washes. The ingredients for gouache are dry pigments, distilled water, inert pigment, and binder. The binder is gum arabic. This binder is used in both watercolor and gouache. Gum arabic is produced by several species of acacia trees. It comes in lumps, which are dissolved in water to form a gum solution. The pigments are then mixed with this solution to make paint. Chalk is added to this combination to produce gouache. The brilliance and luminosity come from the surface of the paint film. Beautiful paintings are made from using this medium.

Pigments and binders have been transformed over time. They have been transformed in order to fit the artists needs and wants. From the prehistoric age to today pigments and binders differ but are still made from the same materials. We can see the transformation of pigments and binders through the different Eras in Art history. Each binder has reflected the art of the period the artist lived in.

My goals for this project were to explore the world of art, particularly focusing on the different binders used in paintings through history. I tested each binder by grinding it with pigments. I tested the paint on the appropriate or similar surface that artists worked on. I calculated and record the differences and similarities among the different binders that I tested. I recorded the smoothness, grain, flexibility, and appearance of the paint after the binder was added and once it was applied to its specific surface. I compared my results to works by famous artists in order to see if my paint had some of the same qualities as theirs did. In the conclusion of the project I show how different binders affect the pigments they are mixed with and what the final product of the paint looks like when it is applied to a particular surface.

Procedure

In order to be able to properly explore the different pigments throughout the history of art, I needed some supplies. My goal was to show the differences and similarities of different mediums and binders in art. I did not recreate the work of Van Gogh or the early cave painters but I did show how the materials used in paint evolved over time. I recreated a few different types of mediums and binders that were used in specific eras of painting. Once I have created the pigment with the appropriate binder I tested it on a surface similar to what the artist of the time may have used.

Cave Paintings: In order to create a pigment that is similar to the pigments used by the cave artists in the Lascaux area I did not need too many things because they had limited supplies. In order to create black I used some charcoal. I broke up the charcoal with a pestle and ground it until it was fine. In order to turn the pigment into a paste I added water and a binder. Cave painters often used honey for binders. I added water and honey to the finely ground charcoal. I tested the pigment on a flat surface. Throughout this process I recorded my data and test results. I recorded the amount of time it took to mix the pigment and when the pigment was finished I recorded my observations on the pigments looks, texture, smoothness, etc. I also recorded my observations of the pigment once I have applied it to the surface.

Egg Tempera: Throughout the entire 14^th century, Renaissance artists discovered that pure egg yolk mixed with water and pigment formed a tough, long lasting paint. This discovery allowed artists to paint with pigments that retained their full and original brilliance. Typically Renaissance artists painted on wooden panels that were prepared with layers of gesso, which is made from size. Size is a solution made by boiling animal skins in water and calcium carbonate. Once this gained a consistency of cream the artist or apprentice swept the gesso in vertical and horizontal movements on the prepared wood. The panel is then rubbed with volcanic ash and linen until it is smooth. Some materials that I needed to test egg tempera with are pigment, water, and eggs. I also needed a glass tray and pestle for grinding the pigments. In order to test the pigments I needed a smooth wood panel possibly from the art department similar to one used in the Renaissance.

Oil Paints: Jan Van Eyck and Van Gogh produced fabulous works of art with oil paint. Oil paint is composed of pigments ground with linseed oil. Linseed oil is the very best of the “drying oils” and it must be specifically prepared for its use in oil paint. Oil paint does have some negative effects because it can turn brownish-yellow with age. Also, it is generally acidic and thus it becomes more transparent with age. For my experiment I needed pigment, and a drying oil (linseed oil). I tested the oil paint on a small piece of canvas.

Gouache: Gouache is a water-soluble paint that is similar the watercolor with the addition of white pigment to give it opacity and texture. For my experiment I needed pigment, water, inert pigment (blanc fixe or precipitated chalk), and binder (gum arabic). Gouache has a greater proportion of binder to pigment than is found in transparent watercolors; for this reason, gouache produces a continuous paint film of considerable thickness and is not suitable for washes. I tested the gouache on a small piece of canvas.

List of Materials

Cave Paintings

1. Mirror, Muller, mortar and pestle

2. Palette knife

3. Charcoal

4. Honey

5. Distilled water

6. Testing surface

Egg Tempera

1. Mirror, Muller, mortar and pestle

2. Palette knife

3. Distilled water

4. Pigment (any color will do but preferably blue or red)

5. Eggs

6. Small wood panel

Oil Paint

1. Pigment (red or blue)

2. Linseed oil

3. Solvent (turpentine or mineral spirits)

4. Small piece of canvas possibly from the art department

5. Mirror, Muller, mortar and pestle

6. Palette knife

Gouache

1. Mirror, Muller, mortar and pestle

2. Palate knife

3. Distilled water

4. Inert pigment (blanc fixe or precipitated chalk)

5. Binder (gum arabic)

6. Small piece of canvas

Other Supplies

1. Small plastic dishes for pigments

2. Paintbrushes

3. Plastic wrap

Observations and Data

Gouache

Gouache is a water-soluble paint similar to watercolor with the addition of white pigment to give it a characteristic opacity and texture.

First I ground my pigments as usual until they are fine. I then add another dry pigment, which is blanc fixe or precipitated chalk (board chalk). Next I added the binder, which is gum arabic. Gouache has a greater proportion of binder than is found in transparent watercolors because gouache was not intended as a wash form. Gouache produces a continuous thick paint film. I blended these two things together in a container until they form a paste almost like the consistency of peanut butter. I then put the paste on a mirror and in an expanding circular motion used a muller that ground the pigments together. I added a little distilled water in order for the muller to grind the pigment more easily. I did not need to get the paint smooth but I had to work fast because gouache tends to evaporate. Evaporation and storage remain a problem for gouache because the pigment and binder tend to separate if they are stored. I needed to work according to this problem, so as soon as I finished blending the pigment I tested it on the small canvas surface immediately. I had to be careful that I did not apply the gouache too thickly because it tended peel or crack off. After I tested the gouache on the canvas surface I recorded my observations.

Observations:

I found that gouache was very difficult to make. I did not like the fact that the pigment dried so fast and it easily evaporated, which made it even more difficult to work with. I used Iron oxide yellow, cobalt cerulean blue, verdigris green, bone black, and lead white. Before I could mix any of these pigments together with the gum arabic I had to add precipitated chalk to the pigment. The chalk gives the pigment its opacity. I had to use chalk from the board and shave it into a powder with a razor. Once the chalk was in a powder I added it to the pigment and then added the gum arabic and the diluted water. I blended the pigment together for about one minute because the paint was ready to work with right away. The most difficult part about this was testing it. Gouache evaporates very quickly so I had to work very fast. I did not like having to work that fast because I like time to think. Gouache also leaves little room for error so I had to be very careful. I did not want to apply the paint too thick because I did not want it to crack or peel off when it dried. In a small area I applied it too thickly and you can see where the pigment might crack. The paint looks very hard and stiff. It reminded me of an eggshell. I did not like working with gouache because it was very difficult to work with and you have to work so fast with it. It is also impossible to store unless you have tubes for it because the binder and pigment will separate and then evaporate.

Oil Paint

This pigment was fun to make because I was able to experiment with two different drying oils, linseed and poppy. I first needed to grind the pigments I wanted to use so they were very fine. I needed to grind each pigment with the binder. I used linseed oil as my binder because linseed oil is the very best drying oil. I needed to mix the paint pigment with linseed oil on the mirror by using a muller. I had to do small amounts at a time. The pigment and oil are ground together until a fine paste results. After removing it from the mirror with a palette knife, I put the paint into a container and covered it.

Next I experimented a bit and tried to create a type of oil paint that is used by many artists because it is easier to spread. Almost all painters add some liquid to their paint easier to spread. In order for me to do this I needed to prepare the pigment by grinding it and then adding the linseed oil to it on the mirror. I then used a muller to grind and blend all of this together until it became smooth. Once it became smooth I removed the paint from the mirror with a palette knife and put it into a container.

I then tested the oil paints to see if they are properly blended. I then tested them on a piece of canvas and recorded my observations. I also record the differences and similarities I saw between the different types of oil in the paint.

Observations:

I really liked making the oil paint. It was fun but it was very difficult to clean up. I tested the pigments with linseed and poppy seed oil. It was easy to make this type of paint because all I had to add was the oil and pigment. I used Prussian blue, malachite, lead white, and cadmium yellow. I decided to paint a landscape with the oil paint because it was very easy to blend the pigments together in order to make a sky and rolling landscape. I found that just a couple of drops of oil are enough for a small amount of pigment. I blended the pigment and oil together for three minutes in order to make the paint really smooth. I found it helpful to add fewer drops of oil than I thought I actually needed because if it is not enough you can always add more to it. I then applied the paint directly onto the canvas because I wanted to use it right away. I also put some paint into a glass tube in order to see if it stored well. After a couple of days the oil paint was fine to work with and I noticed that the pigment had not separated from the binder. I preferred working with the linseed oil instead of the poppy seed oil because the poppy seed oil made the pigment really oily. It also left a really oily look on the canvas surface, which made it very difficult to dry. The linseed oil was much easier to work with than the poppy seed oil because it did not leave such a slick surface on the canvas and it dried much faster.

The picture took a couple of days to dry because of the oil. In fact, the oil painting took the longest to dry out of all of the paintings. Cleanup was also difficult because oil is not soluble in water. I had to use turpentine or mineral spirits to clean the brushes and other supplies. The cleaning process took longer than making the actual paint.

Egg Tempera

To make egg tempera I prepared the pigments by grinding them until they become very smooth, almost like flour. Once the pigment was finely ground I needed to break an egg and remove all of its white in order to just get the yolk. I had to transfer the yolk from palm to palm, pinch the skin, and pierce the yolk so that I only worked with the pure yolk and not the skin. I then added an even proportion of distilled water and egg to the pigment. Next, I mixed all of these ingredients together in a mortar until they were smooth. After I mixed it I covered it with plastic wrap. I then did a binder test in order to see if the pigment cracks. The pigment didn’t crack so I applied the egg tempera to a small white wooden panel.

Observations:

The egg-tempera picture is my favorite one because it is so colorful. I painted a sunset over the ocean and the sun reflects into the water as it sets. Egg-tempera was a lot of fun to make because it is so hands on. Preparing egg tempera requires a lot of patience, time, and eggs. I am happy to report that I was successful on my first try so I only used one egg. The pigments I used were malachite, cadmium yellow, titanium white, cadmium red, Prussian blue, and Spanish gold ochre. I only used the yolk of one egg for the pigments. I separated the yolk from the white and then pierced the egg and collected the pure yolk in a small glass jar. I added the egg to the pigment with a little bit of water. I did not use a lot of egg, probably about three drops per pigment. I then blended the egg, pigment, and water together until the paint became very smooth. The blending time was about three minutes.

I tested the pigment right away on the board that I had prepared the class before. For the board preparation I wiped the board with a cloth in order to get it clean before I applied the paint to it. I then applied white paint with a brush in order to give the board a smooth white surface. I let the board dry overnight. The pigment went on very smoothly and it was easy to work with the pigments on the board. I had no problem blending the pigments together because they did not dry too slowly. Egg tempera is much easier to work with than gouache because it does not evaporate and you are able to blend and work slowly with it. Egg tempera is not as easy to prepare as oil paint but it does dry much quicker and it does not produce a really oily surface.

Egg tempera was the easiest pigment and binder to work with and it also gave me great results. I refrained from storing the egg tempera because I felt that raw egg would not keep well or separate from the pigment. I believe that most artists who use natural binders such as eggs work right away with the tempera; they don’t store it for long periods of time. After experimenting with a natural binder such as egg tempera, it is most beneficial to use pigments with natural binders right away. Even though I didn’t store the pigments I made I only used small quantities and I was able to paint what I wanted and not be pressured by time. I also found that cleanup was much easier than oil paint because there was no need for turpentine or mineral spirits.

Cave Paintings

First I ground charcoal into a fine powder. I used a mortar and pestle so the charcoal turned into a powder. Next I took the powder and added the binder until the substance turned into a paste. I used honey for the binder since that is what the cavemen used for their cave paintings. Next I put the paste on the mirror and added a little water to the paste. I then used a muller in to create the pigment and make it really smooth. I worked in an expanding circle in order to properly grind the pigment. If the muller becomes very hard to move I added more water and continued the expanding circular process. I did this until the paint was slightly smooth. The paint did not become completely smooth because there were some rough pieces of coal in the mixture. This is good because the bigger pieces of unbroken coal are easier to draw with in order to get deep black colors. The liquid coal pigment with the honey binder is good for shading. After the pigment is my desired smoothness I use a palette knife to remove the pigment from the mirror. I then scraped the paint into a container.

Observations:

This was really fun to do because it involved products everyone has at home such as, honey, water, and charcoal. I first had to break up the piece of coal so I put it into a bag and then crushed it with a piece of wood and my foot. Once the coal was almost like a powder I put it into a jar. I then added five drops of honey and two drops of water. I blended this for about five minutes until it became more broken up. I applied the pigment to a paper surface with my index finger because cave painters did not have paintbrushes. It was very easy to work with this pigment and binder because it blended very easily and I could draw with my finger.

I like my picture because it reminds me of something a caveman might draw. I painted a picture of a hunter with a bow and arrow, an animal, and a sun. It was easy to shade with the coal and binder. It was also very easy to make areas more dark and prominent. My painting looks like a child’s drawing because it is finger-painting, but it also looks ‘prehistoric’. The intelligence level of most cavemen was not as high as most Sewanee students, so to us their pictures look childish. Since all of the materials were natural, I found cleanup to be very easy because the coal, honey, and water just washed away.

Conclusions

I enjoyed learning about and testing different pigments and binders that are used in art. I liked recreating different types of paint with different binders that are rarely used today but were at one time very popular. I have determined that artists today are very fortunate because they have pre-made paint to work with and they do not need to make their own paint like artists in the past once had to do. This really opened my eyes to the art world because making paint is such a time consuming and laborious profession. I found it difficult to get the paint to its proper smoothness and texture in order for me to use it for my paintings. Of course, my paintings are by no means equal to those that hang on museum walls.

I found it most interesting to test the pigments with the different types of binders. It is amazing to see how the different types of binders evolve throughout time. Honey, egg, oil, and precipitated chalk with gum arabic are just some examples of binders used by artists. The type of artwork an artist creates depends entirely on the type of pigments and binders he or she chooses to work with. Years of testing and discovery go into creating each type of paint and it is hard to imagine what the next binder the art world will be fascinated by.

Every binder is different so the characteristics of the paint are also all different. All of the paints that I made had their own properties and characteristics. Each one had a different smell, texture, heaviness, and fluidity. Some binders were natural and others were not; some smelled nice (honey, linseed oil) and others smelled bad (egg); some were quick to dry (gouache) and other were not (oil); finally some could be stored (oil, cave paint) and other could not be stored (egg, gouache). We are able to see how the history of art evolved through different types of binders. Over time binders in paint have transformed from natural, food items to new age, chemical materials. After testing four different types of binders I now see how the needs of artists have changed over time because they no longer want to paint with primitive supplies. Today, artists rely on cutting edge technology in order create art whereas artists from the past had to rely on what sources were available to them at the time.

	Binder	Drying Time	Storage Ability	Use Workability	Consistency	Cleanup
Gouache	Chalk & gum arabic	Very Fast	Difficult due to evaporation	Very difficult due to cracking	Smooth when blended for 1 minute	Easy
Oil Paint	Linseed & Poppy Oil	2 days	Lasts well in an airtight container	Very easy to blend	Very smooth when blended for 3 minutes	Very difficult, turpentine and mineral spirits are necessary
Egg Tempera	Egg	1 day	Due to raw egg it is important to use right away	Easy to blend	Smooth when blended for 3 minutes	Easy just need soap and water
Cave	Honey	Less than 24 hours	Storage not a problem but best to use right away for best results	Fun and easy	Coarse and liquid, when blended for 5 minutes	This was the easiest to clean up. Just add soap and water

I found this experiment to be very valuable because it let me explore the art world more intensely. I was not just looking at the artwork. I also created art typical of the prehistoric age, the Renaissance, the Impressionist era, and the Modern world. Each era of art history is different and has different styles, characteristics, and painting techniques. In my experiment I can see how the world of art has evolved through the use of different types of binders.

Links

Acknowledgements

Hartt, Fredrick. Art. New York: Prentice Hall, INC, and Harry N. Abrams, 1993.

Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History. New York: Prentice Hall, INC and Harry N. Abrams, 1995.

I acknowledge Dr. Bordley and Ms. Fitz for all of their helpful advice throughout the duration of this project. I would also like to thank the professors of the Art History department.